Improving retinal mitochondrial function as a treatment for age-related macular degeneration.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of blindness among the elderly. Currently, there are no treatments for dry AMD, which is characterized by the death of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and photoreceptors. Reports from human donors with AMD suggest that RPE mitochondrial defects are a key event in AMD pathology. Thus, the most effective strategy for treating dry AMD is to identify compounds that enhance mitochondrial function and subsequently, preserve the RPE. In this study, primary cultures of RPE from human donors with (n = 20) or without (n = 8) AMD were used to evaluate compounds that are designed to protect mitochondria from oxidative damage (N-acetyl-l-cysteine; NAC), remove damaged mitochondria (Rapamycin), increase mitochondrial biogenesis (Pyrroloquinoline quinone; PQQ), and improve oxidative phosphorylation (Nicotinamide mononucleotide, NMN). Mitochondrial function measured after drug treatments showed an AMD-dependent response; only RPE from donors with AMD showed improvements. All four drugs caused a significant increase in maximal respiration (p < 0.05) compared to untreated controls. Treatment with Rapamycin, PQQ, or NMN significantly increased ATP production (p < 0.05). Only Rapamycin increased basal respiration (p < 0.05). Notably, robust responses were observed in only about 50% of AMD donors, with attenuated responses observed in the remaining AMD donors. Further, within the responders, individual donors exhibited a distinct reaction to each drug. Our results suggest drugs targeting pathways involved in maintaining healthy mitochondria can improve mitochondrial function in a select population of RPE from AMD donors. The unique response of individual donors to specific drugs supports the need for personalized medicine when treating AMD.

Investigating AKT activation and autophagy in immunoproteasome-deficient retinal cells.

Two major proteolytic systems, the proteasome and the autophagy pathway, are key components of the proteostasis network. The immunoproteasome, a proteasome subtype, and autophagy are upregulated under stress conditions, forming a coordinated unit designed to minimize the effect of cell stress. We investigated how genetic ablation of the LMP2 immunoproteasome subunit affects autophagy in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) from WT and LMP2 knockout mice. We monitored autophagy regulation by measuring LC3, phosphorylation of AKT (S473), and phosphorylation of S6, a downstream readout of AKT (mTOR) pathway activation. We also evaluated transcription factor EB (TFEB) nuclear translocation, a transcription factor that controls expression of autophagy and lysosome genes. WT and LMP2 KO cells were monitored after treatment with EBSS to stimulate autophagy, insulin to stimulate AKT, or an AKT inhibitor (trehalose or MK-2206). Under basal conditions, we observed hyper-phosphorylation of AKT and S6, as well as lower nuclear-TFEB content in LMP2 KO RPE compared with WT. AKT inhibitors MK-2206 and trehalose significantly inhibited AKT phosphorylation and stimulated nuclear translocation of TFEB. Starvation and AKT inhibition upregulated autophagy, albeit to a lesser extent in LMP2 KO RPE. These data support the idea that AKT hyper-activation is an underlying cause of defective autophagy regulation in LMP2 KO RPE, revealing a unique link between two proteolytic systems and a previously unknown function in autophagy regulation by the immunoproteasome.

Immunoproteasomes as a novel antiviral mechanism in rhinovirus-infected airways.

Rhinovirus (RV) infection is involved in acute exacerbations of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). RV primarily infects upper and lower airway epithelium. Immunoproteasomes (IP) are proteolytic machineries with multiple functions including the regulation of MHC class I antigen processing during viral infection. However, the role of IP in RV infection has not been explored. We sought to investigate the expression and function of IP during airway RV infection. Primary human tracheobronchial epithelial (HTBE) cells were cultured at air-liquid interface (ALI) and treated with RV16, RV1B, or interferon (IFN)-λ in the absence or presence of an IP inhibitor (ONX-0914). IP gene (i.e. LMP2) deficient mouse tracheal epithelial cells (mTECs) were cultured for the mechanistic studies. LMP2-deficient mouse model was used to define the in vivo role of IP in RV infection. IP subunits LMP2 and LMP7, antiviral genes MX1 and OAS1 and viral load were measured. Both RV16 and RV1B significantly increased the expression of LMP2 and LMP7 mRNA and proteins, and IFN-λ mRNA in HTBE cells. ONX-0914 down-regulated MX1 and OAS1, and increased RV16 load in HTBE cells. LMP2-deficient mTECs showed a significant increase in RV1B load compared with the wild-type (WT) cells. LMP2-deficient (compared with WT) mice increased viral load and neutrophils in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid after 24 h of RV1B infection. Mechanistically, IFN-λ induction by RV infection contributed to LMP2 and LMP7 up-regulation in HTBE cells. Our data suggest that IP are induced during airway RV infection, which in turn may serve as an antiviral and anti-inflammatory mechanism.

Altered bioenergetics and enhanced resistance to oxidative stress in human retinal pigment epithelial cells from donors with age-related macular degeneration.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of blindness among older adults. It has been suggested that mitochondrial defects in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) underlies AMD pathology. To test this idea, we developed primary cultures of RPE to ask whether RPE from donors with AMD differ in their metabolic profile compared with healthy age-matched donors. Analysis of gene expression, protein content, and RPE function showed that these cultured cells replicated many of the cardinal features of RPE in vivo. Using the Seahorse Extracellular Flux Analyzer to measure bioenergetics, we observed RPE from donors with AMD exhibited reduced mitochondrial and glycolytic function compared with healthy donors. RPE from AMD donors were also more resistant to oxidative inactivation of these two energy-producing pathways and were less susceptible to oxidation-induced cell death compared with cells from healthy donors. Investigation of the potential mechanism responsible for differences in bioenergetics and resistance to oxidative stress showed RPE from AMD donors had increased PGC1α protein as well as differential expression of multiple genes in response to an oxidative challenge. Based on our data, we propose that cultured RPE from donors phenotyped for the presence or absence of AMD provides an excellent model system for studying "AMD in a dish". Our results are consistent with the ideas that (i) a bioenergetics crisis in the RPE contributes to AMD pathology, and (ii) the diseased environment in vivo causes changes in the cellular profile that are retained in vitro.

The field evaluation of a push-pull system to control malaria vectors in northern Belize, Central America.

BACKGROUND: Campaigns for the continued reduction and eventual elimination of malaria may benefit from new and innovative vector control tools. One novel approach being considered uses a push-pull strategy, whereby spatial repellents are used in combination with outdoor baited traps. The desired effect is the behavioural manipulation of mosquito populations to elicit movement of vectors away from people and into traps. METHODS: Here, a prototype push-pull intervention was evaluated using an experimental hut methodology to test proof-of-principle for the strategy against two natural vector populations, Anopheles albimanus and Anopheles vestitipennis, in Belize, Central America. A Latin square study design was used to compare mosquito entry into experimental huts and outdoor traps across four different experimental conditions: 1) control, with no interventions; 2) pull, utilizing only outdoor traps; 3) push, utilizing only an indoor spatial repellent; and 4) push-pull, utilizing both interventions simultaneously. RESULTS: For An. vestitipennis, the combined use of an indoor repellent and outdoor baited traps reduced average nightly mosquito hut entry by 39% (95% CI: [0.37-0.41]) as compared to control and simultaneously increased the nightly average densities of An. vestitipennis captured in outdoor baited traps by 48% (95% CI: [0.22-0.74]), compared to when no repellent was used. Against An. albimanus, the combined push-pull treatment similarly reduced hut entry, by 54% (95% CI: [0.40-0.68]) as compared to control; however, the presence of a repellent indoors did not affect overall outdoor trap catch densities for this species. Against both anopheline species, the combined intervention did not further reduce mosquito hut entry compared to the use of repellent alone. CONCLUSIONS: The prototype intervention evaluated here clearly demonstrated that push-pull strategies have potential to reduce human-vector interactions inside homes by reducing mosquito entry, and highlighted the possibility for the strategy to simultaneously decrease human-vector interactions outside of homes by increasing baited trap collections. However, the variation in effect on different vectors demonstrates the need to characterize the underlying behavioral ecology of target mosquitoes in order to drive local optimization of the intervention.

The field evaluation of a push-pull system to control malaria vectors in northern Belize, Central America

BACKGROUND: Campaigns for the continued reduction and eventual elimination of malaria may benefit from new and innovative vector control tools. One novel approach being considered uses a push-pull strategy, whereby spatial repellents are used in combination with outdoor baited traps. The desired effect is the behavioural manipulation of mosquito populations to elicit movement of vectors away from people and into traps. METHODS: Here, a prototype push-pull intervention was evaluated using an experimental hut methodology to test proof-of-principle for the strategy against two natural vector populations, Anopheles albimanus and Anopheles vestitipennis in Belize, Central America. A Latin square study design was used to compare mosquito entry into experimental huts and outdoor traps across four different experimental conditions: 1) control, with no interventions; 2) pull, utilizing only outdoor traps; 3) push, utilizing only an indoor spatial repellent; and 4) push-pull, utilizing both interventions simultaneously. RESULTS: For An. vestitipennis, the combined use of an indoor repellent and outdoor baited traps reduced average nightly mosquito hut entry by 39% (95% CI: [0.37 ­ 0.41]) as compared to control and simultaneously increased the nightly average densities of An. vestitipennis captured in outdoor baited traps by 48% (95% CI: [0.22 ­ 0.74]), compared to when no repellent was used. Against An. albimanus, the combined push-pull treatment similarly reduced hut entry, by 54% (95% CI: [0.40 ­ 0.68]) as compared to control; however, the presence of a repellent indoors did not affect overall outdoor trap catch densities for this species. Against both anopheline species, the combined intervention did not further reduce mosquito hut entry compared to the use of repellent alone. CONCLUSIONS: The prototype intervention evaluated here clearly demonstrated that push-pull strategies have potential to reduce human-vector interactions inside homes by reducing mosquito entry, and highlighted the possibility for the strategy to simultaneously decrease human-vector interactions outside of homes by increasing baited trap collections. However, the variation in effect on different vectors demonstrates the need to characterize the underlying behavioral ecology of target mosquitoes in order to drive local optimization of the intervention…(AU)

Políticas alimentarias y nutricionales en los sistemas nacionales de salud / Food and nutrition policies in national health systems

Basándose en los conceptos de sistema de salud, políticas alimentarias y nutricionales y examinando las evidencias con algunos indicadores básicos, este artículo trata de mostrar los principales determinantes sociales, políticos y económicos de los problemas de la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, considerando la importancia que estos aspectos tienen en dicho sistema, comparando la situación nutricional con algunos países y, finalmente, vinculando estas situaciones con el ejercicio del poder político en los regímenes chavista y post chavista en Venezuela(AU)

On the basis of concepts such as health system, alimentary and nutritional policies, and following up some indicators, this paper shows the main social, political and economic determinants of Venezuela’s nutritional issues and the importance these problems have in agenda of the chavista and post chavista political regimes in Venezuela(AU)

A comparison of two commercial mosquito traps for the capture of malaria vectors in northern belize, central america.

To achieve maximum success from any vector control intervention, it is critical to identify the most efficacious tools available. The principal aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of 2 commercially available adult mosquito traps for capturing Anopheles albimanus and An. vestitipennis, 2 important malaria vectors in northern Belize, Central America. Additionally, the impact of outdoor baited traps on mosquito entry into experimental huts was assessed. When operated outside of human-occupied experimental huts, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) miniature light trap, baited with human foot odors, captured significantly greater numbers of female An. albimanus per night (5.1 ± 1.9) than the Biogents Sentinel™ trap baited with BG-Lure™ (1.0 ± 0.2). The 2 trap types captured equivalent numbers of female An. vestitipennis per night, 134.3 ± 45.6 in the CDC trap and 129.6 ± 25.4 in the Sentinel trap. When compared to a matched control hut using no intervention, the use of baited CDC light traps outside an experimental hut did not impact the entry of An. vestitipennis into window interception traps, 17.1 ± 1.3 females per hour in experimental huts vs. 17.2 ± 1.4 females per hour in control huts. However, the use of outdoor baited CDC traps did significantly decrease the entry of An. albimanus into window interception traps from 3.5 ± 0.5 females per hour to 1.9 ± 0.2 females per hour. These results support existing knowledge that the underlying ecological and behavioral tendencies of different Anopheles species can influence trap efficacy. Furthermore, these findings will be used to guide trap selection for future push-pull experiments to be conducted at the study site.

First record and demonstration of a southward expansion of Aedes albopictus into Orange Walk Town, Belize, Central America.

The first record of Aedes albopictus in northern Belize was made in Orange Walk Town, Orange Walk District, on November 3, 2011. Aedes spp. larvae were collected during a routine Ministry of Health mosquito survey and reared to adults. Upon emergence, a mixed population of Aedes aegypti (35) and Ae. albopictus (11) was observed (aegypti:albopictus = 3:1). Subsequent larval and adult surveys in Orange Walk and Corozal District, also in northern Belize, have confirmed the presence of Ae. albopictus, thereby indicating the range expansion and establishment of this nuisance biter and potential disease vector in Belize.

A comparison of two commercial mosquito traps for the capture of Malaria vectors in northern Belize, Central America

To achieve maximum success from any vector control intervention, it is critical to identify the most efficacious tools available. The principal aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of 2 commercially available adult mosquito traps for capturing Anopheles albimanus and An. vestitipennis, 2 important malaria vectors in northern Belize, Central America. Additionally, the impact of outdoor baited traps on mosquito entry into experimental huts was assessed. When operated outside of human-occupied experimental huts, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) miniature light trap, baited with human foot odors, captured significantly greater numbers of female An. albimanus per night (5.1 6 1.9) than the Biogents SentinelTM trap baited with BG-LureTM (1.0 6 0.2). The 2 trap types captured equivalent numbers of female An. vestitipennis per night, 134.3 6 45.6 in the CDC trap and 129.6 6 25.4 in the Sentinel trap. When compared to a matched control hut using no intervention, the use of baited CDC light traps outside an experimental hut did not impact the entry of An. vestitipennis into window interception traps, 17.1 6 1.3 females per hour in experimental huts vs. 17.2 6 1.4 females per hour in control huts. However, the use of outdoor baited CDC traps did significantly decrease the entry of An. albimanus into window interception traps from 3.5 6 0.5 females per hour to 1.9 6 0.2 females per hour. These results support existing knowledge that the underlying ecological and behavioral tendencies of different Anopheles species can influence trap efficacy. Furthermore, these findings will be used to guide trap selection for future push­ pull experiments to be conducted at the study site...(AU)

El derecho a la alimentación en venezuela / The right to food

En la Declaración del Milenio, aprobada por la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas en 2000, los Estados se comprometieron a reducir a la mitad para el año 2015 el número de personas que padecieran hambre. En 2004 la FAO aprobó las Directrices Voluntarias, del derecho a una alimentación adecuada en el contexto de la seguridad alimentaria nacional y dio orientación práctica a los Estados. El ejercicio del derecho, presenta inequidades de tipo socioeconómico, cultural, geográficos y políticos, que limitan su cumplimiento, entre ellas, desequilibrio en la disponibilidad y acceso a los alimentos que conduce a una situación de alta vulnerabilidad alimentaria y nutricional en los grupos con menores recursos. La alimentación sufre el impacto de la alta inflación y del desabastecimiento que alcanzó 13% en 2012, leche, harina de maíz y aceite están entre los alimentos más críticos. Algunas de las leyes y la política de expropiación, confiscación e invasión de empresas de alimentos y de fincas productivas, ha provocado una caída de la producción nacional, de modo que los alimentos en su mayoría son importados, algunos deficientes en calidad e inocuidad. En la nutrición, está la doble carga, desnutrición (17-31%) y sobrepeso-obesidad (13-20%) en niños y adolescentes, en los más pobres y en los adultos aumentan las enfermedades crónicas. Sin embargo, desde 2007 los datos oficiales del SISVAN no se publican. El cumplimiento del Derecho a la Alimentación, presenta debilidades que deben corregirse para darle más y mejor alimentación a la población(AU)

In The United Nations Millenium Declarations on the Developmental Goals approved by the general assembly in 2000, the countries made a commitment to reduce the number of persons suffering from hunger by the year 2015. In 2004, FAO approved the Voluntary Guidelines on the right to adequate food in the context of national Food Security and provided a practical guidance to the states. The exercise of this right presents inequities in the socioeconomic, cultural, geographical and political levels that limit their achievement, amongst them the instability in the availability and access to food that results in a high vulnerability in food consumption and nutritional status of the poorest populations groups. Food consumption suffers the impact o high inflation and food shortage that reached 13% in 2012; milk, maize flour and oil are amongst the most critical Some laws and the policy of expropriation and invasions of food companies and productive farms have produced scarcity due to a drop in productivity with the result that most food products are imported, some deficient in quality and innocuousness. We carry the double burden of under nutrition (13-20%) and overweight (13-20%) in children and adolescents and in adults, chronic diseases are rising. Nonetheless, SISVAN does not publish data on nutritional status since 2007. The right to food presents weaknesses that should be corrected to ensure a better nutrition for the population(AU)

Mosquito vector abundance immediately before and after tropical storms Alma and Arthur, northern Belize, 2008.

OBJECTIVE: To monitor adult mosquito abundance in northern Belize before/after the first tropical storm of the wet season to estimate the time required for development/recovery of potential vector populations; determine which species predominate post-storm; and compare the effectiveness of two types of mosquito traps-octenol-baited Mosquito Magnets® and U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light traps (with/without octenol). METHODS: Field experiments were conducted in Orange Walk Town, Belize, 21 May to 3 June 2008. Incidence rate ratios and exact binomial 95% confidence intervals were reported and trap-nights calculated to compare species abundance pre- and post-storm as well as trap-type effectiveness. RESULTS: Twice as many species and three times more Anopheles spp. were trapped pre-storm versus post-storm. However, greater numbers of Aedes taeniorhynchus and Culex (Culex) spp. were trapped post-storm. Mosquito Magnets® were consistently more effective than the CDC traps, obtaining twice as many Anopheles spp. and four times as many culicine species as the octenol-baited version (which collected 14 times more mosquitoes overall and 3.5 times more culicine species than the unbaited version). The unbaited CDC trap did not trap any Anopheles spp. during the study period. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicated octenol is an effective attractant for An. crucians in northern Belize; malaria risk in Belize declines immediately post-storm (i.e., mosquito abundance drops); and arboviral risk associated with the rapid increase in culicine mosquitoes post-storm may represent a greater public health threat than malaria (although further research and active disease surveillance is necessary to validate this hypothesis).

Mosquito vector abundance immediately before and after tropical storms Alma and Arthur, northern Belize, 2008 / Abundancia de mosquitos vectores inmediatamente antes y después de las tormentas tropicales Alma y Arthur, norte de Belice, 2008

OBJECTIVE: To monitor adult mosquito abundance in northern Belize before/after the first tropical storm of the wet season to estimate the time required for development/recovery of potential vector populations; determine which species predominate post-storm; and compare the effectiveness of two types of mosquito traps-octenol-baited Mosquito Magnets® and U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light traps (with/without octenol). METHODS: Field experiments were conducted in Orange Walk Town, Belize, 21 May to 3 June 2008. Incidence rate ratios and exact binomial 95 percent confidence intervals were reported and trap-nights calculated to compare species abundance pre- and post-storm as well as trap-type effectiveness. RESULTS: Twice as many species and three times more Anopheles spp. were trapped pre-storm versus post-storm. However, greater numbers of Aedes taeniorhynchus and Culex (Culex) spp. were trapped post-storm. Mosquito Magnets® were consistently more effective than the CDC traps, obtaining twice as many Anopheles spp. and four times as many culicine species as the octenol-baited version (which collected 14 times more mosquitoes overall and 3.5 times more culicine species than the unbaited version). The unbaited CDC trap did not trap any Anopheles spp. during the study period. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicated octenol is an effective attractant for An. crucians in northern Belize; malaria risk in Belize declines immediately post-storm (i.e., mosquito abundance drops); and arboviral risk associated with the rapid increase in culicine mosquitoes post-storm may represent a greater public health threat than malaria (although further research and active disease surveillance is necessary to validate this hypothesis).

OBJETIVO: Comprobar la abundancia de mosquitos adultos en el norte de Belice antes y después de la primera tormenta tropical de la temporada de lluvias, para calcular la cantidad de tiempo que necesitan las poblaciones de vectores potenciales para desarrollarse y recuperarse; determinar cuáles son las especies que predominan después de la tormenta; y comparar la eficacia de dos tipos de trampas de mosquitos: las que utilizan cebos de octenol (Mosquito Magnets®) y las trampas de luz con y sin octenol de los Centros para el Control y la Prevención de Enfermedades de los Estados Unidos (CDC). MÉTODOS: Se llevaron a cabo pruebas de campo en Orange Walk Town, Belice, desde el 21 de mayo hasta el 3 de junio del 2008. Se registraron las razones de las tasas de incidencia y los intervalos de confianza binomiales exactos de 95 por ciento y se evaluaron las trampas nocturnas para comparar la abundancia de las especies y la eficacia del tipo de trampa antes y después de una tormenta. RESULTADOS: Antes de la tormenta, se atrapó el doble de las especies de mosquitos y el triple de Anopheles spp. en comparación con el período que siguió a la tormenta. Sin embargo, el número de Aedes taeniorhynchus y Culex (Culex) spp. atrapados fue mayor después de la tormenta. Las trampas Mosquito Magnets® demostraron uniformemente ser más eficaces que las trampas de los CDC, ya que el número de Anopheles spp. capturados fue dos veces mayor que el de la trampa con cebo de octenol y el número de especies de culícidos fue cuatro veces mayor. En general, el número de mosquitos capturados por la trampa con octenol fue 14 veces mayor que el de la trampa sin octenol y el número de especies de culícidos fue 3,5 veces mayor. La trampa sin cebo de los CDC no capturó ningún Anopheles spp. durante el período de estudio. CONCLUSIONES: Los resultados demostraron que el octenol es un producto eficaz para atraer a la especie Anopheles crucians en el norte de Belice. En este país, el riesgo de malaria disminuye inmediatamente después de las tormentas (es decir, disminuye la abundancia de mosquitos); y el riesgo de contraer una infección por arbovirus, asociado con el rápido aumento de las especies de culícidos después de las tormentas, podría representar una mayor amenaza para la salud pública que la malaria (aunque se necesitaría más investigación y una vigilancia activa de las enfermedades para validar esta hipótesis).

Failure of interior residual sprays as protection against mosquitoes in military-issued two-man tents.

Most studies on interior (or indoor) residual spraying (IRS) have been targeted on permanent/semipermanent structures. We measured the utility of a portable field bioassay, which can be set up quickly to determine the best chemical repellent or irritant for use as an IRS during an emergency or military situation when displaced persons are temporarily housed in tents. If the bioassay were used over an extended period of time, it would also offer a unique way to monitor vector susceptibility and would be able to determine which chemical is most efficient in individual populations. In total, 2193 mosquitoes belonging to seven species in five genera were collected over the study period. No statistical differences were found between any of the treatments, control, and standard tents utilizing the 4 x 4 Latin square design. Therefore, we conclude that IRS with these tested chemicals in military-issued two-person tents are not effective or significant at stopping mosquito entrance. Further studies on implementation of a portable, field bioassay should include utilizing different mosquito traps in the bioassay and looking at the difference between contact irritants and spatial repellents in different-sized tents, as spatial repellency may be more important in smaller-sized tents.

Biting patterns and seasonal densities of Anopheles mosquitoes in the Cayo District, Belize, Central America with emphasis on Anopheles darlingi.

The present study utilized an experimental hut to conduct human-baited landing collections for characterizing the all-night biting patterns and seasonal densities of adult Anopheles darlingi in the centrally located Cayo District of Belize, Central America. A total of 25 all-night collections (i.e., sunset to sunrise) were conducted from January 2002 to May 2003, capturing a total of 18,878 An. darlingi females. Anopheles darlingi exhibited a bimodal nightly biting pattern with one predominate peak occurring three h after sunset and a smaller peak occurring one h prior to sunrise. Biting females were collected throughout the night in higher densities indoors (9,611) than outside (9,267) the experimental hut (O:I=1.00:1.04). Seasonal adult collections show An. darlingi densities were highest during the transitional months between the end of the wet and beginning of the dry season (January) and the end of the dry season and beginning of the wet season (May). A total of 2,010 An. darlingi females was captured in 31 two-h, human-baited landing collections performed from January to October 2002. Anopheles darlingi monthly population densities were found to have no significant associations with high or low temperatures, precipitation, or river level. However, qualitative data examination indicates an inverse relationship between river level and An. darlingi adult collections suggesting a disturbance of larval habitats. All-night biting and seasonal distribution patterns for other anopheline species are also described. None of the adult specimens collected throughout the entire study tested positive for Plasmodium spp. infection using the VecTest rapid diagnostic kit.

La cooperación técnica internacional y los procesos de reforma del sector salud en América Latina / The international technical cooperation and the health sector reform processes

Intenta identificar asuntos específicamente relacionados con los procesos de reforma sectorial de salud, para los cuales deberían haber sido definidas nuevas orientaciones y estrategias en el marco de una suerte de ´competencia´ entre agencias internacionales para las cuales este tema es altamente sensible, destacando el papel de la investigación.(AU)

La cooperación técnica internacional y las políticas de salud / The international technical cooperation and the health policies

Este artículo analiza los cambios ocurridos en la CTI atribuibles a dos procesos: los cambios en los escenarios internacionales y otros que surgen de las propias organizaciones que brindan CTI. Se toman dos procesos como casos centrales: las políticas y las reformas de salud, especialmente el papel desempeñado por la Organización Mundial de la Salud y su oficina para las Américas, la Organización Panamericana de la Salud, y sus relaciones con las agencias multilaterales. Compara los resultados de la CTI en términos de costo/efectividad y, finalmente, sugiere opciones para mejorar el proceso de CTI basadas en las consecuencias de los cambios en los escenarios internacionales, las modalidades de CTI y los valores que deben orientar la producción de la CTI

Spatial distribution of adult Anopheles darlingi and Anopheles albimanus in relation to riparian habitats in Belize, Central America.

Collections of Anopheles darlingi Root and An. albimanus Wiedemann from central and northern Belize were conducted as landing captures from 6:30 to 8:00 p.m. to define spatial distributions and outdoor:indoor ratios of biting during the early evening. In central Belize, collections were made at 31 houses in riparian zones (> or = 1 km from rivers) and 14 houses in upland zones (>1 km from rivers) during the dry and wet seasons of 1993 and 1994. Females of both species were abundant in houses < or = 1 km from rivers. Females were not present in houses located in upland areas during the dry season, but were present in the wet season. A total of 63 paired collections (representing 130 individual captures) from 42 houses showed An. darlingi females were more endophagic (ratio of 1:0.6) during the early evening than were An. albimanus females (ratio of 1:0.21). Paired landing collections from 22 houses in riparian zones in April-May were analyzed in an index of species abundance (ISA). ISA values rated An. darlingi as the dominant Anopheles mosquito indoors and An. albimanus was dominant outside. Although An. darlingi and An. albimanus were abundant in riparian zones, there was no association in their numerical abundance, suggesting that different environmental factors influenced their abundance. In northern Belize, one house for each of 16 villages was sampled during April and May 1994. Large numbers ofAn. albimanus were captured outdoors in houses located in riparian and marshland areas (means of 217.5 and 247.5/1.5 personhours outdoors, respectively). Numbers of An. albimanus were low at houses located away from rivers and marshes (12.2 per collection). Anopheles darlingi was uncommon at sites in northern Belize. Proportionally fewer An. albimanus females entered houses in the north (outdoor:indoor ratio of 1:0.16) compared to the central region (ratio of 1:0.21), which probably reflects differences in house construction, anti-mosquito behavior (i.e., closing windows and doors at sunset), and insecticide treatments. The ISA gave a quantitative assessment of vector dominance in relation to the parameters of spatial distribution and numerical abundance. The index was also sensitive to the variables of indoor and outdoor biting behaviors.